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I have always found it peculiar that “Korea University” is used as the English name for “고려대학교.” If the correct Romanization of “고려” is “Koryeo,” should the name not be translated as “Koryeo University”? The logic behind calling it “Korea University” is intriguing: the English name “Korea” is said to have originated from the Korean word “고려.” Thus, the reasoning goes, it makes sense to render the university’s name as “Korea University.” However, if we extend this logic, it raises a curious question: The name “한양” (Hanyang) eventually came to refer to “Seoul”; does that imply “한양대학교” should be translated as “Seoul University”? Of course, my intention in poking fun at Korea University from the very beginning is purely rhetorical—to stir up some traditional rivalry and grab the attention of Yonsei University readers. With that, Akaraka, Ara-ching-ching, Cho-cho-cho!

The Birth of the Humanities

In the process of understanding and explaining the concept of “humanities,” a similar error has occurred. When the Latin term Studia Humanitatis was translated into the Asian context as “인문학” (Inmunhak), misunderstandings arose. Even without invoking the cliché that “all translation is betrayal,” the translation of Studia Humanitatis into “인문학” inevitably distorted its original meaning.
This misunderstanding, which expanded and evolved from the term “인문” (humanities) as used in “인문대학” (College of Humanities), laid the groundwork for the claim that mun-sa-cheol (文史哲—literature, history, and philosophy) constitutes the essence of the humanities. Consequently, discussions about the humanities became the exclusive domain of liberal arts colleges. Over time, the meaning of “humanities” disseminated rhizomatically, encompassing all fields of study outside the natural sciences and engineering. In fact, I once came across a book titled The Patterns Drawn by Humans, which interpreted “인문학” literally as “patterns (文) drawn by humans (人).” This is a classic case of new meanings generated through translation overshadowing the original sense of the word. If we follow this logic, does the Korean word “철학” (cheolhak), a translation of “philosophy,” mean “the study of brightness” (철, meaning brightness)? Should it then be called “luminary studies” or “the study of luminous objects”? And by the same reasoning, does “국문학” (gukmunhak, Korean literature) translate to “the patterns drawn by a nation”?

Not quite. The humanities, or Studia Humanitatis, were not directly tied to the research-focused traditions of the modern "College of Humanities" that emerged with the founding of the first modern university, the University of Berlin, in 1810. Rather, the humanities originated as a method of study and a set of goals that predated modern universities by far, tracing back to the late Middle Ages in Europe. While modern research universities did incorporate aspects of traditional humanities inquiry, they did not adopt the original study methods and goals developed during the late medieval period.

From its inception, the humanities had little to do with the curricula of medieval universities. For instance, the "seven liberal arts" studied by undergraduate and master's students at early European institutions such as the University of Bologna (est. 1088), Oxford University (est. 1096), the University of Salamanca (est. 1134), and the University of Paris (est. 1160) included the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy). However, the humanities’ distinctive methods and goals were not part of these curricula. Likewise, the "three faculties"—law, medicine, and theology—offered professional degrees at medieval universities but excluded the humanities entirely. As Paul Kristeller argues, the humanities were not a philosophical effort designed to compete with the scholasticism dominant in medieval universities. Although Renaissance humanists criticized the perceived narrowness of scholastic philosophy, they did not propose the humanities as an overarching alternative philosophical system. This is because humanists were neither professors nor philosophers.

The humanities (Studia Humanitatis), often translated as "the study of humanity," emerged as a counterpart to Studia Divinitatis—"the study of divinity." As is well-known, during the Middle Ages, "philosophy was the handmaiden of theology." While I, as someone who majored in theology, cannot say I do not feel a certain nostalgia for that era, it was also a time when the clergy dominated the structures of knowledge and truth. In that context, “the study of divinity” overshadowed the logic and frameworks of other disciplines to an abnormal degree. It was in this environment, where the focus on “the study of divinity” was pervasive, that “the study of humanity” came into being. However, this was not the result of philosophical or pedagogical reflection on medieval university curricula. Instead, it was a reaction to the rapidly changing conditions outside the universities in late medieval Europe. In other words, Studia Humanitatis arose as an external critique of medieval universities’ inability to adapt to the profound societal transformations of the time. The birth of the humanities is intimately linked to the historical reality that the zeitgeist and mindset of late medieval Europeans were undergoing a significant shift.

As is still the case today, shifts in the zeitgeist and perspectives are often triggered or intensified during periods of volatility in existing social systems, including politics, economics, and culture. In late medieval Europe, the strengthening of imperial authority—brought into focus with the rise of the Holy Roman Empire—and the aftermath of the Crusades led to the expansion of secular power and the emergence of centralized states. The formation of these states required economic growth to sustain their power, which, in turn, gave rise to a new class of merchant-centered aristocracy. To the ruling elites of the late Middle Ages—who now held both political and economic power—universities appeared to be the epitome of inefficiency. This naturally spurred a new sense of educational awareness among these elites. They began to recognize that the traditional educational frameworks of the medieval university, centered on the seven liberal arts and the three faculties, were ill-suited to accommodate the transformative changes in the zeitgeist and perspectives. Thus, the humanities (Studia Humanitatis) as a field of study were born.

The Goal of the Humanities

The power wielded by royalty and the wealth flaunted by the emerging aristocracy naturally tended to be preserved and strengthened through inheritance. The desire to pass on one’s wealth and power to future generations was a universal inclination, even in late medieval Europe. While they believed that the exclusivity of lineage would safeguard the inheritance of power and wealth for generations, it did not take long to realize this was an illusion. Had they known the Eastern adage: “wealth does not last three generations” (富不三代), Europe’s elite ruling families might not have been so shocked. Eventually, “children’s education” emerged as the top priority for royalty and the new aristocracy. Raising children to become exceptional individuals was no longer merely an educational goal—it became a survival strategy. As cases of foolish princes ruining entire kingdoms and inept heirs squandering the economic achievements of their predecessors became alarmingly frequent, Europe’s ruling elite had no choice but to pay greater attention to their children’s education.

However, medieval universities failed to meet the demands of their era. The University of Paris focused on training cardinals and theologians, the University of Salerno on producing skilled surgeons, and the University of Bologna on educating logicians, lawyers, and notaries. However, these curricula could not cultivate the exceptional capabilities required to maintain and pass down wealth and power. The pressing requirement of late medieval European elites to nurture future leaders with outstanding leadership to secure their families' futures spurred the birth of the humanities (Studia Humanitatis).

The humanities of the late Middle Ages emerged outside the confines of universities. Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch, 1304–1374), often called the “Father of the Humanities,” was an educated man who studied at universities but pursued his work beyond their walls. He studied law at the University of Montpellier (1316–1320) and the University of Bologna (1320–1323), but he was neither a notary, nor a lawyer, nor a professor of law. Instead, he advocated for the Latin translation of Homer, read Augustine's Confessions atop Mont Ventoux in 1336, and composed epic poetry praising the virtues of the Roman general Scipio Africanus. Petrarch was the first to recognize that he was living in a “Dark Age” at the close of the medieval period. From outside the institutions that would later be referred to as the “ivory tower,” he articulated the necessity and utility of the humanities. Late medieval royals and emerging merchant elites, disillusioned with the exclusivity of “the study of God” that medieval universities deemed sacred and inviolable, were captivated by Petrarch’s vision of “the study of man,” or the humanities (Studia Humanitatis).

It is essential to recognize that the humanities not only emerged outside universities but also originated beyond Italy. Petrarch, often called the father of the humanities, set its initial direction while primarily working in southern France and north of the Alps during the so-called "Avignon Papacy" (1305–1377)—a period marked by the division of the papacy. The humanities were neither an Italian product nor an intellectual achievement exclusive to the Renaissance. Although Petrarch hailed from Italy (Arezzo, near Florence), and despite Hans Baron’s persistent emphasis on the connection between the humanities and Florence’s Civic Humanism, the early development of the humanities relied significantly on Roman-era classical manuscripts unearthed in monasteries outside Italy. For instance, the Abbey of Cluny in eastern France and the Abbey of Saint Gall in Switzerland played pivotal roles. Similarly, just as the discovery of Lucretius's On the Nature of Things in 1417 at the Fulda monastery library in Germany by Florence-born “book hunter” Poggio Bracciolini spurred the birth of the modern age, Petrarch’s discovery of Cicero's Pro Archia in Liège in 1333 directly influenced the emergence of the humanities.

The classical works of ancient Greece and Rome unearthed outside Italy in the 15th century provided the intellectual nourishment for humanists working outside universities to overcome the narrowness of medieval universities and scholastic philosophy. Particularly, the classical works from the Roman Republic and Empire, which deeply explored human nature and the nature of power, were viewed as benchmarks for embodying the new spirit of the age that humanism sought to achieve. A passage from Charles Nauert’s Humanism and Renaissance European Culture effectively summarizes the situation of the time:

"Through the turmoil and political conditions of the 13th century, the establishment of republics and dictatorships in the 14th and 15th centuries led to a realization by the social groups who dominated political life that humanist (humanities-based) education was necessary to raise their descendants to become rulers of the state. The one who first conceived of this humanist educational program was the great poet Petrarch. However, this program successfully became a cornerstone of elite education (Paideia) in Italy not because it appealed to the nobility’s sentiments, but because it was practical."

Humanities and the Mirror for Princes (Speculum regum)

As Charles Nauert explicitly stated, humanism was a "practical" discipline that emerged when the social groups that dominated political life at the time taught the classics of Greece and Rome outside of universities, with the aim of raising their descendants to become rulers of the state. Humanism began with a practical purpose of educating future leadership, particularly by political elites and emerging merchants. At that time, universities were institutions for training experts and authorities, producing talents in fields such as law, medicine, and theology based on Aristotelian philosophy. However, humanism emphasized rhetoric skills and the moral duties required of ruling elites, aiming to understand the nature of power and enhance judgment about the course of history.

Humanities acquired the rhetorical skills required of leaders from classical works of the Roman era, including those of Cicero. Although it did not develop into a complete philosophical system, the attempt to reflect deeply on humanity through the classics of Greece and Rome became a key aspect of the study objectives and methods of humanities. Consequently, humanities did not pursue knowledge of truth for its own sake, but instead focused on educating the ruling elite on sound moral character and a sense of responsibility. The goal was not to pursue "knowing" but to aim for "living the knowledge." The essence of early humanities became the bridging of the gap between knowledge (Theory) and life (Practice).

Again, it is important to emphasize that the humanities were not an alternative curriculum in opposition to the scholastic philosophy of medieval universities, but rather a method of education driven by the requirements of royalty and emerging nobility for their children. What the children of royalty and new nobility intended to pursue was not "thinking about God" in secular life, but "thinking about power and wealth" that had to be enjoyed and preserved in secular life. Therefore, royalty educated their princes to secure the future of their kingdoms, and new nobility sought to nurture excellent heirs to preserve their vast wealth for generations. Responding to these practical demands, a few humanists used the classical works of Greece and Rome as educational texts.

However, "book hunters" such as Petrarca and Poggio Bracciolini discovered that these Greek and Roman classics could be grouped into a single educational genre. They belonged to the so-called "Mirror for Princes" (Speculum regum). A "Mirror for Princes" was a list of essential classical readings designed to cultivate excellent princes and successors. The term also referred to a collection of these classical texts compiled into an independent guide for rulers. Works such as Plato's The Republic, Xenophon's Cyropaedia, Isocrates' To Nicocles, Cicero's On Duties, Seneca's On Clemency, Plutarch's Lives and Moralia, Augustine's City of God (Book V, Chapter 24), and Marcus Aurelius' Meditations were all regarded as "Mirrors for Princes" for nurturing the leadership of the next generation. Of course, the scholastic philosophers of medieval universities were familiar with these classics as well. However, while the scholastics used these works as fragmented arguments to prove their own logical theories, humanists sought to apply the meaning of these works, classified as "Mirrors for Princes," to the lives of ruling elites. While the scholastics attempted academic interpretations of the classics, humanists urged a return to the original meanings of the works and advocated for their practical application. Through the classics in the "Mirror for Princes" genre, humanists sought to acquire practical knowledge rather than merely speculative knowledge.

The reason that Renaissance "book hunters" were able to discover these Greek and Roman classics in the monastic libraries north of the Alps was that, since the 12th century, "Mirrors for Princes" (Speculum regum) had already been widely circulated. The need for prince education, raised as early as the Carolingian dynasty (800–987), led to the production of various books in the "Mirror for Princes" genre. Sometimes, books were directly written for kings, grand dukes, or leaders of large families, aiming to teach leadership. According to the research of Allen Gilbert, there were hundreds of books in this genre during the Middle Ages, reflecting its popularity. In the 13th century, when Aristotelian philosophy began to dominate, the "Mirror for Princes" attained its peak with Thomas Aquinas's On Kingship (De regimine principum, 1267) and a similar work by his disciple, Egidio Colonna. In the 14th century, Dante also included educational content fitting the "Mirror for Princes" in two cantos (18–19) of the Divine Comedy's Paradiso, and Petrarca, the founder of humanism, dedicated On the Proper Government of a State (1327) to Francesco da Carrara, lord of Padua. Renaissance humanists, aided by book hunters such as Petrarca and Poggio Bracciolini, began to have princes and heirs of new noble families read books belonging to the "Mirror for Princes" genre as part of their education.

Universities, Humanities, and Yonsei University

If the humanities in their formative stages were an elite education born outside universities, how should a "research-oriented university," such as Yonsei University, understand and apply the humanities? As is widely known, the University of Berlin, founded in 1810, is often considered the first "research university." The early University of Berlin, where figures such as Humboldt, Fichte, Schleiermacher, and Hegel taught, was established with the purpose of "producing new knowledge, transmitting scholarly work through papers and writings, and producing researchers (doctorate holders) to lead the development of science," rather than focusing on training elites through the humanities. This was the starting point for the "modern university," which differentiated itself from medieval universities that were centered around the training of professionals in three fields: theology, medicine, and law.

Naturally, Yonsei University also belongs to the category of research-oriented modern universities. Therefore, Yonsei University shares the goals of modern universities: the production of knowledge, transmission of academic work to subsequent generations, and production of researchers. The mission of Yonsei University's graduate school is precisely this. Research (the production of knowledge), publication of papers and writings (transmission to subsequent generations), and education (the production of future researchers) determine the direction of all academic administration and university operations.

However, “undergraduate education” should differ from graduate-level education at research-oriented universities. This is because undergraduate education should aim to teach basic “life skills.” It should prioritize the development of critical thinking skills to foster problem-solving abilities, alongside an understanding of fundamental knowledge systems. Moreover, it should teach an enterprising and challenging attitude toward life, openness to other cultures, a sense of empathy for others—especially the weak, and a sense of moral responsibility. Here, a common ground can be found between the goals of undergraduate education and the educational goals of traditional humanities. In the educational orientation pursued by late medieval humanists and the authors of classical works belonging to the “Mirror of Princes,” we can find proactive advice on the goals and methods of undergraduate education.

The reflection on the pursuit of fragmented knowledge because of excessively specialized majors and the cessation of interaction with related disciplines, that is, the one-sided focus on graduate-level research, led to the emergence of the "undergraduate-centered university" (Liberal Arts College). American institutions such as Williams College, Amherst College, and Swarthmore College demonstrate the necessity of such undergraduate-centered colleges. These colleges maintain a small student body (usually under 3,000 students) and emphasize humanities and classical education, as their primary goal is to impart life skills to undergraduate students.

Of course, Yonsei University is not an "undergraduate-centered university" but a "comprehensive university." Therefore, Yonsei University does not primarily focus on imparting life skills or emphasizing humanities education for undergraduate students. Professors are fundamentally expected to be "researchers" who produce knowledge, guide graduate students in thesis writing as future researchers, and pass on knowledge to the next generation through research and publication. In a "comprehensive university" such as Yonsei University, if professors do not publish research papers or books that contribute to the production of new knowledge, they will stagnate in their academic careers—they would be unable to advance from assistant professor to associate professor and full professor. This principle has been encouraged with the motto "Publish or perish."

There is a need for greater attention to the humanities for the undergraduate students at Yonsei University, who are limited in their right to receive proper undergraduate education because of the professional demands placed on professors at comprehensive universities. Particularly, Yonsei University is an educational institution that is expected to cultivate the elite who will lead the future of Korean society. Therefore, Yonsei University should increase accessibility to the humanities and the classics that belong to the "Mirror of Princes" genre. Charles Eliot (President from 1869 to 1909), who transformed Harvard University from an institution aimed at training clergy into a world-renowned university, shared this vision. Through his efforts to combine the characteristics of a research-focused graduate school with a humanities-centered undergraduate education, the current Harvard University and American higher education system were born. This led to the creation of the Harvard Classics—an effort to have undergraduates read the great works of humanity.

How many students graduating from Yonsei University have actually read works such as Plato's Republic, Xenophon's Cyropaedia, Isocrates' To Nicocles, Cicero's On Duties, Seneca's On Clemency, Plutarch's Lives and Moralia, Augustine's City of God (Book 5, Chapter 24), and Marcus Aurelius' Meditations? What is Yonsei University teaching about critical thinking, problem-solving through an enterprising and challenging attitude, understanding of various academic fields and their foundations, openness to other cultures, foreign language proficiency, and moral responsibility, including care for societies marginalized? Is Yonsei University not at risk of deteriorating into a vocational school?